The second was a civil war with all thirteen states split between Patriots, Loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;[161][162] a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence, or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the Commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end. [33], The Proclamation Line of 1763 was intended to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia or south into Florida, while separating American Indians and colonials by restricting settlement in the west. The 1st Rhode Island Regiment formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in June 1788. [71][72] However, Patriot intelligence, which Paul Revere had helped organize, learned of Gage's intentions, and Revere alerted Captain John Parker, commander of the Concord militia. Acting on intelligence, Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at Concord by way of Lexington and to capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams, considered the two principle provocateurs of the rebellion. The French navy in particular played a key role in bringing about the British surrender at Yorktown, which effectively ended the war. [229], When the early war policy was administered by General William Howe, the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods. [ab] Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through Lafayette on his staff. [341], A Loyalist militia unit—the British Legion—provided some of the best troops in British service that it received a commission in the British Army:[342] it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery. The North Ministry was replaced by Lord Rockingham, who accepted office on the basis George III agreed to American independence. [366] Though British forts on their lands had been ceded to either the French or the British prior to the creation of the United States,[393] Indians were not referred to in the British cession to the US. With the exception of Georgia, twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree a unified response to the crisis. Since it numbered only about 42,000, heavy recruiting programs were introduced. Few acts by the crown roused so much antagonism in America as that use of foreign mercenaries. Jones. That marked the end of British occupation in the new United States. [235] It also helped support the American campaign in the west; in the 1778 Illinois campaign, militia under General George Rogers Clark cleared the British from what was then part of Quebec, creating Illinois County, Virginia. [308] Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather. The American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was the war in which the thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, to become the United States of America, and gave us the Declaration of Independence. The Whigs generally favored lenient treatment of the colonists short of independence while the Tories s… [28][ap] Approximately 7,774 Germans died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat. Instead they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795). [38] Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The Patriots sent their Olive Branch Petition to the King and Parliament, both of whom rebuffed it. The state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. [267], USS Ranger, Capt. [273], As a whole, American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. [146] In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain, proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Provided by British sympathisers, these were smuggled into North America from London by George Merchant, a recently released American prisoner. [355], Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. [252] An attempted breakout over the York River at Gloucester Point failed due to bad weather. Howe's replacement, General Sir Henry Clinton, then mounted a 1778 "Southern strategy" from Charleston. [303] With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later. [206], The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. [155] Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Riedesel, surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. In July 1776, Congress unanimously passed the Declaration of Independence. [262], Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia, combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. [20], Col. Joseph Brant, GBIroquois Mohawkled Seneca in war, Col. Joseph Cook, USIroquois Mohawkled Oneida in war, Early in July 1776, Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of North Carolina. [119], General Howe officially met with a delegation from Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference, but it failed to conclude peace as the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. "Resolved, 4. [51] Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion, issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. These included estimates of 3000 Germans, 3000 Loyalists and Canadians, 3000 lost at sea, and 500 American Indians killed in battle or died of wounds. Knowlton's Rangers, which included Nathan Hale, became the Army's first intelligence unit. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. [109], After regrouping at Halifax, Nova Scotia, William Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. [387], Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as "little short of a standing miracle". For origins and aftermath, see, Eastern North America, North Atlantic Ocean, the West Indies. [58], However, the use of German mercenaries and Catholics was opposed by many in Parliament and the Protestant-dominated colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, it allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. [65] Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. [228] Greene led Cornwallis on a series of counter marches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House on March 15. [115] Over the course of the war Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on intelligence operations. [59] Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense, which was widely reprinted. During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. [384][385], An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. Charles Cornwallis did not himself surrender at Yorktown; rather, claiming illness, he sent his deputy, Charles O'Hara. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions which continued after independence was achieved. [388] The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. [233] This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast. [49] On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord which began the war. [404][ao], A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779). [254], Although Britain's global conflict with France and Spain continued for another two years, Yorktown was the final engagement of the American war. British sponsorship of local warfare on the United States continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty went into effect. [283] After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. [167] However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army; he did this by training "model companies" in each regiment, who then instructed their home units. [102] Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. [152] Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. The buttons are in pewter and is mostly hand stitched except for internal portions. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty. [394][aj] At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the US by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned. [82] Howe did not engage in a standoff with Washington,[83] and Washington made no plan to assault the city;[84] instead, the Americans fortified Dorchester Heights. [200], During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Washington informed Henry Laurens[z] "that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little. American Revolutionary War Records Rolls 1775–1783, Abstracts of Graves, Compiled Military Service Records, 1775–1783, Pension and Bounty-Land Warrant Applications 1800–1900 From 1775, with the first shots in Lexington, to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the Revolutionary War secured independence for the United States of America. The most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the Battle of Kings Mountain; the Patriot victory irreversibly crippled any further Loyalist militia capability in the South. Format. [416] With support from Benjamin Franklin, in 1790 the Quakers petitioned Congress to abolish slavery;[417] the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it. [320] An alternate source was readily available in the Holy Roman Empire, where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. [376] North now resigned, obliging the king to invite Lord Rockingham to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made commitment to US independence a condition of doing so. Casualty numbers vary slightly with the Hessian forces, usually between 21 and 23 killed, 80–95 wounded, and 890–920 captured (including the wounded). The total number of the former provided by quotas from the states throughout the conflict was 231,771 men, and the militias totaled 164,087. [133] In the meantime, the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. [248] Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. [177], Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the Treaty of Aranjuez (1779), Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar, Menorca and the Floridas. Fighting broke out on 19 April 1775: the British garrison at Boston was harassed by Massachusetts militia at Lexington and Concord after destroying colonial Assembly powder stores. No single event caused the revolution. At this time the delegates were so impressed with Washington that his appointment was considered a done deal. [64] At this point, the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and became a civil war. The “constrained voice” is a good synopsis of how the British viewed the American Revolutionary War. [173] This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress. [227] The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. [153], Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. [122], Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. Meanwhile, the Netherlands, which provided both official recognition of the United States and financial support for it, was engaged in its own war against Britain. [215] Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the Battle of Kettle Creek on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at Brier Creek on March 3. [35], The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry began by instructing the Royal Navy to clamp down on smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. [282] The last was by the frigate USS Alliance commanded by Captain John Barry. [36] In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry, which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act. [295] This meant that unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, seat of Congress, New York and Charleston. April 9-12 - Battle of the Saintes - Caribbean. In addition to as many as 30% deaths in port cities, and especially high rates among the closely confined prisoner-of-war ships, scholars have reported large numbers lost among the Mexican population, and large percentage losses among the American Indian along trade routes, Atlantic to Pacific, Eskimo to Aztec. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba, and on the Virginia county courthouse at Cahokia by Liutenant Colonel Clark. At the same time, the British rescinded provisions of colonial charters claiming to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific; the Mississippi Riverbecame the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in the Americas, with free navigation on it "to the open sea". [105], Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress to authorize an expedition against the Bahamas in the British West Indies to secure additional ordnance there. [380] However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782. [352] In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. [103] A troop of British regulars set out to reconquer South Carolina, and launched an attack on Charleston during the Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776,[104] but it failed and left the South in Patriot control until 1780. First, guerilla warfare played a major role in the war for independence, replacing the pitched battle of earlier periods. [355], Most American Indians east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict. [66], Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned into a protracted war. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. To restore empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel the Congress to dissolve itself. [242] This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their co-ordination was planned more carefully. [203] A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the Battle of Springfield, effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. [415], In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom. On March 10, 1783, the Alliance outgunned HMS Sybil in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to Congress. John Adams was a Founding Father, the first vice president of the United States and the second president. On the ground, fighting in the American Revolution began with the skirmishes between British regulars and American provincials on April 19, 1775, first at Lexington, where a British force of 700 faced 77 local minutemen, and then at Concord, where an American counterforce of 320 to 400 sent the British scurrying. [389], On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that "all acts of hostility" were to cease immediately. [281] On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Marines, forefather of the United States Marine Corps. [112][q] When Washington was driven off Long Island he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. [44] Many of the delegates feared that an all out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for repeal of the Intolerable Acts. [398], Up to 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. [176], On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781. Although their war with France and Spain continued for another two years, Yorktown ended the British will to continue the war in North America. The American Revolution—also called the U.S. War of Independence—was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The British were permitted to withdraw without further casualties on March 17 (known as Evacuation Day), and they sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia.
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